Wednesday, December 28, 2011

What Most Of Us Do Not Know About christmas!

Jeremiah 10:1-25

Hear the word that the Lord speaks to you, O house of Israel. Thus says the Lord: “Learn not the way of the nations, nor be dismayed at the signs of the heavens because the nations are dismayed at them, for the customs of the peoples are vanity. A tree from the forest is cut down and worked with an axe by the hands of a craftsman. They decorate it with silver and gold; they fasten it with hammer and nails so that it cannot move. Their idols are like scarecrows in a cucumber field, and they cannot speak; they have to be carried, for they cannot walk. Do not be afraid of them, for they cannot do evil, neither is it in them to do good.” ...

Sunday, September 25, 2011

Who really wrote the Matrix and Terminator movie 05/23 by Lynne Mack | Blog Talk Radio

Who Really Wrote The Matrix?

Who really wrote The Matrix?

By Nisa Islam Muhammad
Staff Writer | Last updated: Jan 4, 2005 - 6:20:00 PM

What's your opinion on this article?
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Sophia Stewart

(FinalCall.com) - Screenplay writer Sophia Stewart is adamant that she is the author of the screenplay for the blockbuster movie, The Matrix, and her body of work was stolen. She is suing Warner Brothers, Joel Silver, Andy and Larry Wachowski in Los Angeles’ United States District Court in a case that has been defined as one of the largest suits for damages in the history of the film industry. The case will be heard July 2005 by a jury to decide if, in fact, the defendants committed copyright infringement and racketeering for allegedly stealing Ms. Stewart’s work and then creating The Matrix. It has been a five-year battle with Ms. Stewart, as a little David against the motion picture industry as the Goliath.
“I’ve won major decisions in the court. I got the FBI involved from the very beginning. The copyright infringement involves two of the biggest movie franchises in film history, The Terminator and The Matrix. They stole my work and I have the evidence to prove it,” Ms. Stewart told The Final Call.
“I was completely blown away when I saw my work on the screen and I knew I hadn’t sold it to anyone. I shopped it around from 1981 to 1985 to Fox and in 1986 to the Wachowski brothers. I have the letters to prove they had access to my work. Fox is lying in federal court when they say they never had access to my work because I have the signed registered returned receipts and a lot of letters of access from them,” she said.
She further explained, “I created an epic—which is a body of work that you can get six or more movies from. The Matrix is a derivative of The Terminator. The Matrix comes from the future part of the epic.”
The book is called “The Third Eye” and is an epic science fiction manuscript with copyrights dating back to 1981.
“After viewing Star Wars, I thought, no one has done a science fiction version of the Second Coming of Christ, the foretelling of his Second Coming,” she said.
While Ms. Stewart was shopping her manuscript around, she also sent it to the Wachowski brothers in response to an ad looking for a science fiction manuscript to create a comic book.
During the FBI investigation, it was discovered that, in an effort to avoid liability, 30 minutes or more was edited from the original Matrix film. Further witnesses employed at Warner Brothers came forward claiming that the executives and lawyers had full knowledge that the work in question did not belong to the Wachowski brothers as they claimed.
The witnesses also added that the original work of Ms. Stewart had been seen, and often used during preparation of the motion pictures. During a Sept. 27 court proceeding, United States District Judge Margaret Morrow ruled against several motions made by the defendants in their attempt to get the suits against them dismissed.
The investigation done by the FBI not only established Ms. Stewart as the writer of The Matrix, but also surprisingly The Terminator. If she wins the case with her mounting piles of evidence, Ms. Stewart will receive damages in what may be one of the biggest payoffs in the history of Hollywood. The Terminator and its sequels, along with The Matrix and its sequels, have gross receipts totaling over $2.5 billion.
“Some people can’t believe a Black woman wrote The Matrix or The Terminator. I didn’t write it with my skin; I wrote it with my brain,” says Ms. Stewart. “Since when did skin color have anything to do with intelligence, like rich and powerful has nothing to do with theft. The poor steal because they’re needy; the rich steal because they’re greedy.”

BLACK WOMAN WROTE THE MATRIX AND TERMINATOR AND WINS LAW SUIT!

Monday, January 7, 2008

BLACK WOMAN WROTE THE MATRIX AND TERMINATOR AND WINS LAW SUIT!

Black Author wins The Matrix Copyright Infringement Case.

This little known story has met a just conclusion, as Sophia Stewart, African American author of The Matrix will finally receive her just due from the copyright infringement of her original work!!!

Monday, October 4th 2004 ended a six-year dispute involving Sophia Stewart, the Wachowski Brothers, Joel Silver and Warner Brothers. Stewart's allegations, involving copyright infringement and racketeering, were received and acknowledged by the Central District of California, Judge Margaret Morrow residing. Stewart, a New Yorker who has resided in Salt Lake City for the past five years, will recover damages from the films, The Matrix I, II and III, as well as The Terminator and its sequels. She will soon receive one of the biggest payoffs in the history of Hollywood, as the gross receipts of both films and their sequels total over 2.5 billion dollars. Stewart filed her case in 1999, after viewing the Matrix, which she felt had been based on her manuscript , "The Third Eye," copyrighted in 1981.

In the mid-eighties Stewart had submitted her manuscript to an ad placed by the Wachowski Brothers, requesting new sci-fi works. According to court documentation, an FBI investigation discovered that more than thirty minutes had been edited from the original film, in an attempt to avoid penalties for copyright infringement. The investigation also stated that "credible witnesses employed at Warner Brothers came forward, claiming that the executives and lawyers had full knowledge that the work in question did not belong to the Wachowski Brothers."

These witnesses claimed to have seen Stewart's original work and that it had been "often used during pre preparation of the motion pictures." The defendants tried, on several occasions, to have Stewart's case dismissed, without success. Stewart has confronted skepticism on all sides, much of which comes from Matrix fans, who are strangely loyal to the Wachowski Brothers. One on-line forum, entitled Matrix Explained has an entire section devoted to Stewart. Some who have researched her history and writings are open to her story. Others are suspicious and mocking. "It doesn't bother me," said Stewart in a phone interview last week, "I always knew what was true."

Some fans, are unaware of the case or they question its legitimacy, due to the fact that it has received little to no media coverage. Though the case was not made public until October of 2003, Stewart has her own explanation, as quoted at www.daghettotymz.com/matrix/matrix.html :

"The reason you have not seen any of this in the media is because Warner Brothers parent company is AOL-Time Warner... this GIANT owns 95 percent of the media... let me give you a clue as to what they own in the media business... Ne w York Times papers/magazines, LA Times papers/magazines, People Magazine, CNN news, Extra, Celebrity Justice, EntertainmentTonight, HBO, New Line Cinema, Dreamworks, Newsweek, Village Roadshow..many, many more!...

They are not going to report on themselves. They have been suppressing my case for years..." Fans who have taken Stewart's allegations seriously, have found eerie mythological parallels, which seem significant in a case that revolves around the highly metaphorical and symbolic Matrix series. Sophia, the Greekgoddess of wisdom has been referenced many times in speculation about Stewart.

In one book about the Goddess Sophia, it reads, "The black goddess is the mistress of web creation spun in her divine matrix" Although there have been outside implications as to racial injustice ! ( Stewart is African American), she does not feel that this is the case. "This is al about the Benjamins," said Stewart. "It's not about money with me. It's about justice." Stewart's future plans involve a record label, entitled Popsilk Records, and a motion picture production company, All Eyez On Me, in reference to God. "

I wrote The Third Eye to wake people up, to remind them why God put them here. There's more to life than money," said Stewart. "My whole to the world is about God and good and about choice, about spirituality over 'technocracy'." If Stewart represents spirituality, then she truly has prevailed over the "technocracy" represented in both the Terminator and the Matrix, and now, ironically, by their supposed creators.

Stewart is currently having discussions with CBS about a possible exclusive story and has several media engagements in the near future to nationally publicize her victory. June 13th 2004. Sophia Stewart's press release read: "The Matrix & Terminator movie franchises have made world history and have ultimately changed the way people view movies and how Hollywood does business, yet the real truth about the creator and creation of these films continue to elude the masses because the hidden secret of the matter is that these films were created and written by a Black woman... a Black woman named Sophia Stewart.

But Hollywood does not want you to know this fact simply because it would change history. Also it would encourage our Black children to realize a dream and that is... nothing is impossible for them to achieve!"

Artist malik seneferu

PS: what are your thoughts on this subject

From WikiAnswers: The Matrix was written (and directed) by brothers Larry and Andy Wachowski. In a 2001 lawsuit a claim surfaced that the movie was based on Sophia Stewart's script, The Third Eye. After a court appearance no show by the claimee, the judge discarded the case. To date the claim has not been legally established and awarded in favor of the claimee by any recognized court.

'The Matrix' , ostensibly , was written by the Wachowski brothers but even they admit that they were strongly influenced by other sources e.g. Mamoru Oshii's cyberpunk film 'Ghost in the Shell' .

Listen to internet radio with Lynne Mack on Blog Talk Radio

Tuesday, September 6, 2011

Malcolm X Speeches

Who Taught You To Hate Yourself?

Wednesday, August 24, 2011

Mission of a Free Thinker

Mission of a Free Thinker"Man and Islam"by: Dr. Ali Shariati

Question: Assuming we are the real free-thinkers, what must our relationship be with the society? What route should we choose?

Answer:

I think before we talk about the relationship between free-thinkers and people, we must first start with the free-thinker himself. That is, we must understand the free-thinking in its true sense. Can we be sure that we can let our hair down with the free-thinkers of our society and share with them what we have?

I believe we have not yet reached the second stage (the relationship between free-thinkers and people). But assuming that we have, when we get together with the masses, do we know how to talk to them? What have we got to share with them? What message have we for them? This is a difficult problem indeed. Should we, considering the fact that our society is a religious one, reject the opinions and the thoughts of the masses? Must we dictate to the masses? If so, are we not strengthening and making the masses the more determined in their religious stupor? If we denied their thoughts, have we not become estranged from them and relegated them into the lap of the reactionaries who are fighting us? We notice that in both cases the problem has remained unsolved. On the other hand, we arc essen- tially still feeding upon the European intellectuals' thoughts of the last couple of centuries. To what extent can such thoughts, designs, and ideas illuminate our atmosphere as well as our responsibilities?

First, the European intellectual is dealing with a worker who has gone through three centuries of the Middle Ages and two centuries of Renaissance. Second, this worker lives in an atmosphere not domi- nated by a religious spirit. Third, he has reached the industrial proletariat stage. Fourth, he lives in a well-developed industrial bourgeois system in which the relationships are of an industrial type, and finally, the worker has attained a higher stage of growth, and self-consciousness. More important, the European intellectual listen- ers (the industrial proletariat), have formed a layer-a distinct and independent class in society which has developed a special cultures concession, and form in the foundation of the Western European economy. Now suppose as a free-thinker, (who wants to imitate the ideas of the 19th century intellectuals). I try to speak to an Iranian worker who does not have any of the characteristics of the 19th century intellectual listener. I live in a society in which the bourgeoi- sie, except in big cities, is in its nascent stage The comprador bourgeoisie is a middle-man, not a bourgeoisie of the genuine producing system. Apart from this we still do not have a workers' class in our society. What we have are just groups.

There are groups of workers in the most primitive as well as corrupt societies. For instance, in Saudi Arabia (where there are industrial resources and western production), about 500-2000 work- ers live in the top echelon, but the country as a whole lacks the workers' foundation; it has a tribal, agricultural, or feudalistic base.

Further, we are not living in the 19th century. When we compare the characteristics of our societies in Asia and Africa with a European society we notice that we are living in the thirteenth century. Therefore, we must first discover in what century we live, and then understand our own ideas and teach them. To use 19th century ideas on a 13th century society not only leaves us hanging in the air, but it is also useless when we are unable to find any listener-the same things that our free-thinkers are faced with now.

Our free-thinkers are living in the 13th century but their words, thoughts, and ideas are borrowed from the Western European intellectuals of the 19th and 20th Centuries. And as such, they cannot find any listener. Our listeners are "classic" bourgeoisie who have nothing in common with the European bourgeoisie. Our bazaars bourgeoisie is 100 % religious, while the European one is 100 % non-religious. The European bourgeoisie is so progressive that it created the French revolution while ours just huddle in the bazaars-a base for seeking tradition.

From our masses' point of view, the average citizenry is a villager. They are our listeners and you cannot talk to them the same way. John Moore talked to the British workers in 1864. And so, it is a mistake to think that we are living in the 19th or 20th century, as well as it is a mistake to follow the European intellectuals of these two centuries as our models. Therefore, we must first throw the 10th century European "contents" out of our heads and for the first time discover our own century.

There are nations in the world now which are living in a pre-historic stage, namely, they have not entered the historic period yet. Therefore, to be in the 20th century is different than living in it. Accordingly, we must first discover our own century, and then learn from identical free-thinkers of Europe who are sympathetic to our ideas of our centuries. We are now living in the 13 th or 14 th centuries (the end of the Middle Ages, or the onset of the modern age). In Europe, these were the periods of transition from feudalism and traditional religion to a bourgeoisie which signifies an open world- vision, revolutionary bourgeoisie, and protest against religion. At the present we have all these conditions in our society. However, we have to find out what Europe did in the 13 th and 14 th centuries. And what were the reasons that European free-thinkers played their role so well that they changed the frozen and the stagnant Middle Ages to a new Europe?

The basic factors that helped to bring about the new civilization in Europe were economical and intellectual in nature. Economically feudalism changed to bourgeoisie. In place of the reactionary and lowly aristocrats, bourgeoisie emerged. This was due to East-West relations, the crusaders, the discovery of America and Australia, mercantilism, and the exploitation of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and even North America. Intellectually, the change was from Catholicism to Protestantism. The 14th century free-thinker did not negate religion, he transformed his inclination from the hereafter to this world; from tendency towards spirit, nature, ethics, and ascetism to work and effort; from sufism to objection and from self- centeredness to society-centeredness. In short, the same powerful cultural and religious resources which lay dormant in the heart of Europe were changed to moving, emerging, creative, and constructive forces by the free-thinkers.

Therefore, we must depend upon this fact, rather than what Sartre, Marx, and Rousseau say. What these people say has to do with our next two centuries. We must work for the society in which we live now rather than for our own sole mental and physical satisfaction. What is important to us now are Luther's and Calvin's works, since they transformed the Catholic ethics (which had impris- oned Europe in tradition from centuries) to a moving and creative force. For instance, Max Weber discussed the relationship between capitalism to the Protestant ethic. He argued that those predomi- nantly Catholic Countries such as Spain, France, and Italy were less progressive than England, Germany, and the United States which were predominantly Protestant. Namely Weber maintained that there was a direct relationship between Protestant ethic and capital- ism.

We notice that those countries which have changed the Catholic religion from its reactionary form to a creative and protesting force have made headway. On the other hand, those countries which have kept Catholicism have remained in the condition of the Middle Ages. Geographically, Spain and historically, Italy were in a position to have been the most progressive countries in Europe. First, Spain had the brightest past in Europe and Rome was the center of Christian civilization (before Islam). Second, the Renaissance movement of the 15 th and the 16 th centuries originated in Italy with such great art- ists and thinkers as De Vinci, Michaelangelo, and Galileo.
Although in the past Spain was not like Rome, from the 8 th to 12 th centuries she had the greatest Islamic civilization, and thereafter she played the role of transmitter of Islamic Culture to Europe. Ironically, these two vanguards of civilization are the two most backwards in Europe now. While America, England, and Germany, which were the last ones caught up with civilization, are the most advanced. In these, civilization, industry, capitalism, and material strength are explainable only in light of religious factors and religious differences. And so, at this point we reach the conclusion that the flee-thinkers of the 14 th through 17 th centuries found their new destiny by destroy- ing their old faith, and transforming traditional Catholicism to a protesting, world-minded, political, and materialist Protestanism.

Such a mission is also available to the religious East which is living at the end of the Medieval period. But it is not fitting that we mimic the European flee-thinkers of the 19 th and 20 th centuries and reject religion. In a society like Iran, whose foundation is a religious one, we must not turn ourselves into a so-called free-thinker cadre (that gathers in coffee houses, cabarets, and parties to "talk big," and show off by reciting new personalities), while our average citizens are still living in the Middle Ages, having no access to our talents, religion, ideology, and writing.

Any school which is not based upon the cultural foundations of a society looks like a good book in a library which is used only by a small group of students and professors. Even if thousands of such books are printed, they will have no effect upon the masses. The greatest danger, however, is self-separation of the free-thinker from the society's context. If a free-thinker separates himself from his society, no matter where he goes or what he does, his society will remain in everlasting corruption. For example, in the 5 th and 6 th centuries A.H., thinkers such as Avicenna, Ghazali (two of history's great teachers) died in a society which was wallowing in the corruption in the Seljuk and Ghaznavi periods. Why? Because these free-thinkers stayed away from the society (consequently, we would have been better off if, in place of Avicenna, Ghazali, Fakhr, and Zakaria Razi, we had one Abu Zar; all the Islamic societies would have been saved from the grips of Seljuk, Ghaznavi, and the Mongols.

In ancient Greece too, there were free-thinkers like Aristotle. But throughout Aristotle's lifetime, the Athenian people were suffering from corruption, aristocracy, and slavery. On the other hand, there was not one single philosopher in Sparta, but here people were sportsmen and brave. In Athens, hundreds of writers, philosophers and so forth could not change and organize the society, their pres- enec and absence did not make a bit of difference.

Our problem in the East, (e.g. Iran), is that we have created a platonic garden out of our countries. For example, if you go to Tehran and visit a few cafes you will meet many free-thinkers, socialists, existentialists, and so forth. They have a super market of ideas along with their own special publications. But unfortunately, the average man in the street does not know who these "idealists" are and what they are doing,

Q: In order to be able to talk to peoples is it sufficient to know their language ?

It is quite obvious. Suppose I go to one of the villages and visit a mosque. A mullah is preaching something incomprehensible and vague. If I can take his place and talk to people so they could see the preacher's flaws and perhaps misleading statements, then I know my mission as a free-thinker. However, if I cringe in a corner and shun talking to the villager, thinking that he is stupid or because of fear or being accused by the mullah of "uncleanliness," then I would be ignorant and a fool. I must observe what the mullah does and how he deals with people. Why are people listening to him? Is it his talk that has attracted people or some other kind of tradition and heritage? If we find our answers not only can we talk to villagers more effectively and sincerely, but consequently, we can occupy the mullah's position and find a base for the free-thinker in the society. Otherwise, we are going to get nowhere by sitting and philosophizing.

Q: Can you impose yourself upon people as you are or is it enough to talk their language? For instance, if I wanted to be a free-thinker and talk to them, is it necessary to wear the same outfit as they do?

It is not necessary to wear their type of outfit. These types of procedures or mannerisms belong to American sociologists. It is not necessary to either change my clothes or face and mimic foreigners. If I go to a mosque and explain a more appealing and logical Hossein to the masses than what the mullah does, they will listen to me more. However, as long as the mullah is dominating the villagers' mentality and I (as a free-thinker) am yakking on the peripheries, no matter how modern my yammerings are, they are not worth a farthing. There is no difference between the yammerings of the existentialists and those of the socialists. My job is to influence the villagers' minds.

Once I was reading an article by the Iranian movie director who made, When The Storks Fly. He said, "If a director wants to know a villager, he must become a friend to one in order to find out what he says and feels as well as what kinds of problems, ideals, and pains he has. We must learn how to talk and live with him so we can discover his style." Therefore, a free-thinker must be the director of his society; that is, he must constantly feel and be the designer of his society. Suppose a couple of us free-thinkers drop inside a coffee shop in which ordinary men chat around and drink tea. All of a sudden the shop will become dead silent-everyone will stop joking, talking, and working! They will stare at us as though we are from Mars, wishing to see us out of there as soon as possible. We free-thinkers are out of context in this atmosphere, since we come to this coffee shop to speak rather than to listen. The point is, we must go in the heart of the masses not with an arrogant attitude.

Once Jalal told me, "When I was coming out of the holy shrine in Mashhad, I started to amble along with my coat hanging over my shoulder. A villager approached me and said, 'Hey, man, how much are you selling this coat for?' I said, 'My man, it is not for sale.' Jalal was very elated about the whole incident since the villager had mistaken him for one of his own kind, so much so that he wanted to buy his coat. He thought this was a remarkable achievement for a Tehrani to be mistaken for a villager. I told Jalal, "Yes, it was a great achievement but the man had a better insight than you did, since he treated you properly while you answered him badly. 'My man, it is not for sale' was not the proper response of a free-thinker, since you forced him to figure out that he had made a mistake. Thus, he reproached himself for having mistaken you for someone else. You should not have chased him away since he would have ultimately figured out that a man with a top coat on his shoulder would not say, 'My man....' since this utterance communicated to the villager that you were a stranger and you belonged to a different class!

Q: What you are proposing takes a long time to accomplish. How can we accomplish them all?

In solving social problems, we must not think of the shortest way, rather, we must think of the most correct way. The reason why most of our free-thinkers have not been able to get anywhere is because they have been waiting to discover several ways. And when they realized that they could not do much, they became desperate and resorted to writing modern poetry: for instance, "For the past eighteen years, a few times we made some catcalls in the streets. Alas! to no avail! So we became desperate. Ah! we have no right to become desperate!"

The point is we must choose the best and the most logical way that leads us to our objective. What do we want to do? If we are after superficial jobs, they have been done myriads of times, and each time disillusioned we have returned to our starting point.

A free-thinker's function is not to lead the society. This is one of the most serious mistakes that free-thinkers around the world commit. The most worthless elements for leading people are free- thinkers. In all the African and Asian uprisings you will never see free-thinkers' faces. Rather the revolutionary leaders are from among the masses and the common people. Free-thinkers have always been the worst disaster to revolutions.

In 1960, in a conference which was held in Northern Africa, it was decided that in the event that the Northern African revolution became successful and Africa free, the leadership positions (ministry of education, economics, etc) should be given to free-thinkers rather than to revolutionaries and guerillas. But who were the free- thinkers? Those who were overseas working on their doctorates while the revolutionaries were fighting in the trenches. And so, the revolutionary must leave his gun, go about his business so the engineer and the doctor (who were abroad) could lead. Unfortunate- ly, those societies which have had successful revolutions became conservative and corrupt when intellectuals and the educated wrested the leadership from the revolutionaries. Tunis is a typical example. Therefore, the function of free-thinkers is not the political leadership of a society, rather, their sole job is to bestow awareness on the masses, that's all. lf a free-thinker ean awaken his society, the product of his mission will be heroes who can lead the free-thinkers themselves. And as long as there are no heroes, the mission of the free-thinker is not yet over. Religion, art, how to communicate with people, poetry, and theatre are all important factors with which free-thinkers can work; trying to handle more than these is useless. That is, the mission of a free-thinker is confined to returning the alienated society (by Europeans) to her real self, restoring her character and her "usurped" human sentiment and bestowing class consciousness, faith, and national history upon her. In accomplishing such a mission, the most logical way (rather than the shortest) must be chosen.

Unlike free-thinkers who expect more and sacrifice less, we must sacrifice more and expect less. I would rather see two to three generations work before they get any results. For instance, if we reach our goals within ten years, we are apt to fall behind a hundred years. We have always had a strange experience in Africa and Asia. Those countries which have reached their objectives quickly, have lost their former concessions as well. This is why I denounce all "quick" and immature revolutions.

Mission of a Free Thinker (II)

Q: In your opinion who must make us, ourselves or someone else?

No one. Only ourselves. The same way African free-thinkers did it. Who made them? An African used to be denounced in France, thrown out of restaurants in the U.S., and was not heeded as a human being in England. However, he has gained self-consciousness now even though some of them still do not know how to write.

Once I came across a vendor in France. He was Muslim, and the verses of the Qur'an he had memorized were the ones that were beneficial to his social struggle. The same thing was true about the personalities he knew and the history he had read. All these were giving him consciousness. He was so familiar with each country and was analyzing the world's problem's to such a degree that I was stunned. Who had trained this man? Had he been trained by a UNESCO expert, a prophet, Sorbonne leftist professors, or him- self ?

Q: In case of the African thinker, he was despised so much that it helped him to gain consciousness. But being despised is not so true in our case. Is it?

It is not true that we are not being despised. The fact is that we are not aware that we are being despised. Today's blackman is the same man who was being despised in the 17th and 18th centuries in Paris. In the 15th and 16th centuries they were stowed away in ships (like cucumbers) destined for America. They were bought at insignif- icant prices and sold at much higher prices in the U.S. and Australia. At the time these slaves did not realize that they were being despised, but they do now.

However, the nature of the contempt and the existence of contra- diction by themselves are not responsible factors for gaining con- sciousness. As long as man's volition has not discovered the contra- diction, it will remain in societal context for a thousand years. A blackman must feel the contempt in order to become a factor in awakening others. I must recognize and feel my enemy. But as long as I have not felt him, I go to him blindfolded, and even take pride in going close to him so he would not be my enemy anymore. The Iranian man who is proud of working under a European (who has destroyed his country and history), no longer has an enemy but a boss. And the boss does not create consciousness in the servant. An enemy is anti-thesis who can create consciousness but only if it is "realized" that such a contradiction exists.

The free-thinker's and artist's functions are to remove the contra- dictions and discrepancies that exist in the heart of a society and enter them into the feeling and consciousness of the society. As long as such contradictions exist in objectivity they will not cause any movement. In the twentieth century we still witness societies that live in feudalism; something that belongs to the second and third epochs of man's history. Or, there are still societies which have not entered the historical period; that is, they possess no clothing and no handwrit- ing. Therefore, contradiction must enter subjectivity in order to cause movement. This is why poverty does not cause movement, it is the feeling of poverty that does. Isn't that so? Often times poverty is even accepted and once this happens, there is no more contradiction. The poor must develop consciousness of poverty.

One of the ways to enter the contradiction and positive realities into the consciousness of the present generation is to seek help from those who have covered this route already. That is, instead of studying Marx, Sartre, Heiddeger, and so forth (which have nothing to do with our condition anyway) we need to find out what Fanon, Mawloud, Yassin, Radhakrishnan, the thinkers of Chad, the Congo, and so forth have said. These people who are like ourselves and have an identical mission as ours which they have accomplished. We must learn from these people and countries, rather than imitate them. This is mere translation and duplication. And duplicating Aime Cesaire is no different than imitating Sartre. We must utilize them in our teaching, research, and methodology.

Q: Assuming we are living in the cultural atmosphere of the 13th and 14th centuries, must we also accept that the 20th century European ideas are for our use six hundred years from now ?

You asked a very good question. Yes. However, you must note that sometimes we can cover five centuries in twenty years. We now have societies in Asia and Africa which have-through correct planning-covered a few centuries in thirty years. Basically, the problem of intellectual revolution and social movement is not subject to calendrical measurement criteria. Sometimes a society covers an epoch in a thousand years, at other times in a much shorter period of time. I believe that if a free-thinker lives in a primitive society he must not wait for that society to change to feudalism, bourgeoisie, capitalism, imperialism, socialism, and so forth. One can bypass these stages if one is familiar with his society. This is why a free-thinker can employ historical determinism, cut it short, omit it, or change it.

If we recognize that we are in the 14th century and subsequently work with our society with 14th century methods, we will reach the 20th century in less than half a century. I don't mean copying the 20th century. As Fanon states, "We never want to make another Europe or America out of Africa." What was meant to be accom- plished in the U.S.? A different Europe, but they ended up with the U.S. of A! If we try to turn Africa into Europe we will have two Americas. Is it worth it?

We neither want to make a Europe, nor another America, but a human society. Europe and America tried to create a human society. They talked and bluffed, but they did just the opposite and ironically they have always killed all the humans they could find. We absolutely do not want to catch up with England, the U.S., and France. Never!

Q: What is a free-thinker's mission in building up a society?

If a free-thinker has a mission, it is leaping forward, otherwise he must wait for historical determinism. In that case man will be subject to determinism rather than having a reponsibility and a mission. What is the difference between providential determinism and historical determinism? One claims that God has made us the way we are, while the other relates man's fate to historical determinism. In my opinion it is better that man be made by God than by the latter.

Q: In order to be able to gain independence of thinking so that we can make a leap, must we first possess technology?

How can a society which lacks identity possess technology and become independent of Western technology? Which society has ever done so? Japan has technology since she has identity. A society which lacks spiritual character will always remain a consumer. Even if she can produce she will still remain a tool in the hands of the Capitalist.

Q: Can we create technology and go our own way rather than dance to their tune?

In order to reach economic production, we must first accomplish cultural production. We cannot "culturally" remain a colony of the West and industrially become independent; this is impossible. How can an individual who cannot choose a simple thing gain his technological independence in front of the West?

A servant must first gain his human independence in order to find his economic independence. Mentally and morally he must first find his human independence; leave the boss's house, and go after a different job.

And so, we must first start cultural production so we can have economic production, otherwise we will remain a consumer forever. Have you ever seen a man behind a 1970 Buick in Tehran? He acts so puffed up, it's as though he has invented it! Even a rat can save its money and buy one! The Westerners announce that they have reached the moon and we become excited here! What does this have to do with us?

Q: Should not cultural production and economic production go hand in hand?

As long as man has not gained self-consciousness, he cannot have economic consciousness. He must become a human being first; think, choose, create, quit regurgitating European talks, and instead talk about himself. In order to become independent of the West, I must get to know her and reach a stage of 'mental independence.'

Q: But the West does not wait for us to reach her. Will their technological rate of advance be proportionate to our pace?

Yes. This theory was designed in the 'conference of the year 2000.' However, it was put forward by the tricky Western sociolo- gists. They told us that thirty years from now the Asian GNP will advance 5 times, but that of the West will advance 30 times. That is, the gap between us will widen much more in the future than it is now. However, they are not taking into account the "leap" factor. How are they measuring? With their present rate of progress. Of course, if we keep the existing factors constant for thirty years they are right. But these factors do not remain constant. We now have socieities in Asia which have had a constant production rate for the past thousand years. However, suddenly in the past ten years they have made a multiple leap. Due to a mental and social leap their GNP has made phenomenal advances. The Western sociologists do not take this "leap factor" into account (which the East brims with).

Q: If you do not accept the predictions of the year 2000 conference, how do you see the future?

I do not predict. Prediction belongs to Western sociologists. I study the present. However, I know that in the year 2000 consumer- ism will vanish. And I know that "ideology" has always been the victor in history. We now have ideology in Asia and Africa. I have been witnessing the Western decline ever since the Spengler period. The Asian graph is going up, and the Western graph is coming down. The victory belongs to the East.

Q: Can we ever reach an internationalism?

Internationalism is a big lie. It is used to universally exploit and deceive us. Assuming it can become a reality some day, then "sir" will be replaced by "Mr. proletariat."

I accept internationalism only when Asia and Africa can have a "free-choice" personality on par with the 500 million Westerners. In that case I will accept it as humanism, meaning equality of humanity. However, as long as I am not a human being, and I am accused of being a primitive, I cannot do anything. The Westerner's partnership with me will be like a slave-foreman relationship, or an empty- handed man with a Capitalist. The former should toil, so the latter could get all the profit. Internationalism is a big reason for creating a fake partnership between the East and the West. Is not the partner- ship of an empty-handed man with a rich man a lie? Can a rich man, based upon his own volition and money, accomplish this task? This is like a Hajji Bazzari, while he is exploiting everyone, he claims that he is everyone's religious brother and he goes to mosque to mourn Hossein! What does religious brotherhood mean here anyway!?

When a Proletariat is bourgeoisified, he is a bourgeoisie; I don't care about his background! Yea, Edward Heath was the son of a carpenter too; do we see him as a carpenter boy now? Thus, when a proletariat becomes a bourgeoisie, the society is a bourgeoisie. In this case we no longer have a hourgeois class, we have a bourgeois society which exploits everyone in order to step up his consumption.

I must think and be myself. Whenever I have turned into a human being, achieved an equal status with the international community, as well as the power of decision-making, then I would claim that all men are equal. But so long as internationalism does not recognize me as a human being, I have nothing to say to it. What is internationalism? Even the proletariat of the Western nations are ripping me off!

Q: Is it due to their technical progress that the Western countries have attained such an economic prosperity?

Do you think it is due to only eight hours of work that Europeans have a prosperous economy? A taxi driver in France works 6 hours and lays around for the remaining 18 hours, and in the meantime he is secure from financial anxiety. Is this due to his work or his country's looting of Africa? France buys a bottle of Vin Rose from Algiers for 10 cents, tomatoes from Africa for almost nothing, and rents Chad's coffee farms for free! She pays $9.00 a day to a few naked and poor Africans to harvest the coffee and in the meantime she boasts that Capitalism is nice because she pays a lot to workers. In the meantime she turns around and sells the same coffee for millions of dollars. France does not pay a penny out of her pocket, she steals them all!

Q: So, you are proposing a theory?

No. I am not a theory maker. Whoever makes up theory is only good for universities. What is a theory for anyway?

Q: Europeans have reached a progressive thinking stage, why are they behaving this way?

I think they are biased. They believe in their own superiority, and have created a type of thinking atmosphere, called, "egocen- trism," which is self-centeredness. An egocentric individual does not count others as human beings. This philosophy has existed in the West ever since ancient Greece. Even humanists, antropologists, and socialists are caught in the snare of egocentrism. Human relations to them is limited to the relations among their own classes. They do not discuss universal relations.

I can never forget that in the 19th century the great socialists, humanists, and upholders of democracy and equality talked about everything (they even meticulously analyzed the minute relationships between the worker and the employer), but never mentioned exploi- tation!

I must point out to something here, and that is, in human and social problems we must not apply strict scientific methodology. For instance, when dealing with a scientific issue, we concentrate upon its validity or invalidity. However, in social problems we must not pay attention to the logic of the statement, rather, we must focus on the geography of the issue.

In the East, we are the victims of the same talks which bestowed life upon the West. For instance, sometimes an "ism" which saved the West from slavery and united her, found its way to the East in a particular historical epoch and caused disparity and dissension. Or, the same nationalism which was the cause of progress in the 16th and 17th centuries and built Australia, France, England, and Germany, it caused disparity and the consequent break-up of the Islamic power in the 19th century.

Thus, it is obvious that apart from the truth and falsity and logicality and illogicality of a social issue, one must take into consideration the geography of an issue. Suppose there is an orphan who has inherited some property. In the meantime I have my eyes on his riches and am thinking of a way to rip him off. What should I do so he can't read into my thought? I must create lots of sensitivities in him. For instance, I must tell him, "The best way to become a man is to resort to knowledge." I must keep poking into his head the usefulness of knowledge and send him away to London. I must force him to read scientific and philosophical books. Or, if the child has religious sentiments, I must order him to go after praying and so forth. The child-if he were going to do the right thing-he would grab my collar and say, "Hey, pass the money!"

Thus everything must be understood and placed in its proper context-its geography. We must not concentrate on mere "talks and words," rather, we must evaluate the "talker" first.

Q: What sources do you suggest for awareness?

We must not think of a particular source which gives us awareness. For instance, when I was a university student I used to read many old books. These remained in my head as a collection of superstition and myths until I went to Europe and became a student of Berg. With the methodology I learned there, I transformed all those superstitions and myths to awareness-producing elements. For instance, an untrue story about the seventh century would provide me with awareness since I would look for the context, the persons, and the purpose for which the story was written.

The point is when one has a methodology at hand, a lie will help him to recognize specific period in the past. In order to accomplish this, one must have a specific outlook, and look for particular things in history as well as look at history from a specific angle. We can, then, use a piece of information to find the necessary ingredients for building our present cultural foundations and awareness, as well as familiarize ourselves with the conditions of our today as well as our tomorrow.

For instance look at existentialism. The philosophical basis of existentialism is this: man has existence first, and he makes his own essence (characteristics and specifics) afterwards. We notice that our own Mullasadra has talked about the same thing in the past. So, if we maintain a historical and philosphical connection with our past, we will have well-developed fresh mentalities and ideologies, rather than a Persian dubbing of what Westerners say. Existentialism our country is an immature Western imitation which is in need being enriched with our 3000-year-old theosophic experience in order eligible to be called philosophy.

When I was in Europe, Radhakrishnan had come to Belgium. Since I like him I went to see him. In Belgium he delivered a lecture on the history of religions. I witnessed the great scientists from all over Europe who felt like children in his presence. That is, whenever Mr. Radhakrishnan expressed a viewpoint, he was so well-versed with his subject matter that European scientists felt like apostles around their prophet. And when they wanted to ask a question, they were cautious and timid. When a man like Krishnan (so familiar with the Eastern theosophic schools) talked, one became enchanted with all that beauty and depth. In those moments Europeans realized there was a new personality in Europe! Unfortunately we turn around and hash over European regurgitations, while a man like Kirshnan has offered humanity's dinner table a new and fresh dish.

In 1961, when Nehru came to France, the Indian embassy (unlike all others which try to imitate French dance and wine) served Indian dishes. When European dignitaries came to visit, they noticed things were different. . . this made the French feel inferior, since after two centuries of suffering under exploitation, the Indians were standing firm in their own tradition. This roused the European's respect.

This is what I mean by originality and free-thinking, rather than our Iranian free-thinker's hundred years of regurgitation of Marx's ideas which are of no use to anyone. Those individuals who have been successful in Africa and Asia have been the ones that have been able to teach European philosophies and forget them. They were able to get to know their societies, find and propose new solutions, based upon their existing cultural, historical, and social resources, and create a new foundation. We see that they have become successful too!

Thursday, August 4, 2011

Al-Islam

Al-Islam

From the Perspective of a

Qur’an ONLY Muslim

By J.A. Malik

Introduction

Because many people in the United States of America think with a Eurocentric or Western frame of mind it is hard for them to accept what is outside of the Western “BOX” in which they are confined. Later on, we will see how this and other factors contribute to our lack of growth and progress. For now, I will reveal the prisons that hold us back. Please keep them in mind.

1) The Prison of Nature & Heredity

2) The Prison of History

3) The Prison of Society & Environment

4) The Prison of the Self

The Qur’aan ul-Majiid says, “There is no compulsion in religion – the right way is indeed clearly distinct from error. Therefore, whoever disbelieves in the devil and believes in Allah, he (she) indeed lays hold on the firmest handle, which shall never break. And Allah is Hearing, Knowing. (Qur’an 2:256)

Know that there is no such thing as blind faith in al-Islam. As well, no one is allowed to force you to be a Muslim.

The Glorious Qur’an says, “Allah it is Who has revealed the BOOK to thee; some of it’s verses are decisive – they are the basis of the Book – and others are allegorical.

Then those in whose hearts is perversity follow the part of it which is allegorical, seeking to mislead, and seeking to give it (their own) interpretation. (Qur’an 39:23)

The Arabic word muhkam means decisive while mutashaabih means allegorical (symbolic, figurative, illustrative, metaphorical, representative).

The allegorical parts are up for interpretation to learn the lesson(s) contained within. Yet we cannot get into arguing if they are true, factual or actually occurred word for word as written in the Qur’aan.

Etymology and meaning

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.^[16] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".^[17]^[18] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by worshipping God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."^[19] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."^[20] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.^[21] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).

Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ( listen)^{[note 1]}) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: الله‎, Allah), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable.^[1] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets .^[2] Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time,^[3] but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God (the Final Testament, following the Old and New Testaments).^[4] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking, politics, and welfare, to warfare and the environment.

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

God

Main article: God in Islam

Allah means God in Arabic

Islam's fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd. God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:^[23] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahman, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahim, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).^[24]

Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is to worship God.^[25] He is viewed as a personal God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”^[26] and responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.^[7]^[27] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, between God and the creation that he brought into being by the sheer command “‘Be’ and it is.”^[7]^[28]

Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims to refer to the one God, while ʾilāh is the term used for a deity or a god in general.^[29] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.

Angels

Main article: Islamic view of angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.^[30] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."^[31]

Revelations

Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an

Prophets

Hadith collections

[show]Sunni

[show]Shi'a

[show]Ibadi

[show]Mu'tazili

Main article: Prophets of Islam

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: نبي‎) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an ^[42] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.^[43] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.^[7]

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Qiyamah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.^[44]

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to ridwān.^[45] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.^[46]

Predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."^[47] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".^[48]

Five pillars

Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.^[49]

Testimony

Main article: Shahadah

The Shahadah,^[50] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.^[51]

Prayer

Main article: Salah

Fasting

Main article: Sawm

Further information: Sawm of Ramadan

Fasting, called "Sawm" (Arabic: صوم‎), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.^[55]

Alms-giving

Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah

"Zakāt" (Arabic: زكاة‎) is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (sadaqah).^[56]

The Kaaba during Hajj

Pilgrimage

Main article: Hajj

The pilgrimage, called the Hajj (Arabic: حج‎ Ḥajj) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.^[57]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh

Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh)
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The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".^[58]

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.^[59] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri^{[clarification needed]} have since died out.^[60]^[61]

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.^[62]

Jurists

Main articles: Ulama, Sheikh, and Imam

Ottoman miniature painters

There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.^[63]

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.^[64]

Family life

Government

Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, and Caliphate

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control.^{[citation needed]} As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.^[69]

Military

Main articles: Jihad and Islamic military jurisprudence

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.^[70] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.^[71] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.^[72]^[73] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.^[74] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.^[75]

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.^[76]^[77] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.^[78]

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.^[77] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's^[79] occultation in 868 AD.^[80]

History

Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam

Muhammad (610–632)

Main article: Muhammad

Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2^nd most sacred Mosque in Islam.

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.^[81] For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.^[82] During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.^[83] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.^[84]

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".^[85]

The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.^[86]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.^[87]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.^[88] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.^[89] One of the best preserved architectural examples of Islamic conquest, is the Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) founded in 670 by the Arab conqueror and Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi ^[90] and considered as the ancestor and model for all the mosques in the western Islamic world ^[91] · .^[92] The muladies (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have comprised the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.^[93] While the Muslim-Arab elite engaged in conquest, some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.^[94]

The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only;^[95] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.^[96]

Golden Age (750–1258)

Main article: Islamic Golden Age

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution

The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization.^[97]

Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.^[98] The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.^[99] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.^[100] Sufism became a full-fledged movement that had moved towards mysticism and away from its ascetic roots, while Shi'ism split due to disagreements over the succession of Imams.^[101] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.^[102]

Córdoba, the largest Muslim city of the world in 1000, was home to about half a million people.^[103] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word^[104] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.^[105]^[106] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.^[107] The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.^[108] The first establishments for taking care of the mentally ill were also created in the Muslim world.^[109] During this time, standards of experimental and quantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.^[110]^[111] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist."^[112] Legal institutions introduced in Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).^[113]^[114]

Fragmentation and invasions

Main articles: Crusades and Reconquista

Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asia and Ilkhanate

The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture in Spain.

By the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphate began to fracture as various regions gained increasing levels of autonomy. Across North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, emirates formed as provinces broke away. The monolithic Arab empire gave way to a more religiously homogenized Muslim world where the Shia Fatimids contested even the religious authority of the caliphate. In the 10th century the powerful Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the name of Islam. They were replaced by the Ghurids in the 12th century. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.^[115] During this time, expansion of the Muslim world continued, by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.^[116]

The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. From the 11th century onwards alliances of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars known as the Crusades, aimed at reversing Muslim military conquests within the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, especially in the Holy Land. Initially successful in this aim, and establishing the Crusader states, these acquisitions were later reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.^[117]

In the east the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, as they overran the Muslim lands in a series of invasions. Meanwhile in Egypt, the slave-soldier Mamluks took control in an uprising in 1250^[118] and in alliance with the Golden Horde halted the Mongol armies at the Battle of Ain Jalut. Over the next century the Mongol Khanates converted to Islam and this religious and cultural absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia, eastern Europe and the Indian subcontinent. The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.^[119] The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century,^[120] probably brought by merchants making use of free passage offered by the Pax Mongolica.^[121]

New dynasties and colonialism (1030–1918)

In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece, and western Anatolia. In 1453 under Mehmed II the Ottomans captured Constantinople^[122] and launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.^[123] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim.

The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India.

From the 14th to the 16th century much of the eastern Islamic world was experiencing another golden age under the Timurid dynasty. In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there, and despite periodic setbacks, the Safavids remained in power for two centuries until being usurped by the Hotaki dynasty in the early 18th century.

Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.^[124] Also of importance to Sufism was the creation of the Masnavi, a collection of mystical poetry by the 13th century Persian poet Rumi.

After the invasion of Persia and sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in the mid 13th century, Delhi became the most important cultural centre of the Muslim east.^[125] Many Islamic dynasties ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent starting with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century. The prominent ones included the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1857).

It was during the 18th century that the Wahhabi movement took hold in Saudi Arabia. Founded by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.^[126] In the 19th century, the Salafi, Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,^[127] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. In the 19th century, the rise of nationalism resulted in Greece declaring and winning independence in 1829, with several Balkan states following suit after the Ottomans suffered defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. During this time, many Muslims migrated, as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.^[128] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.^[129] The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.^[130]^[131]

Modern times (1918–present)

Further information: Arab Revolt, Arab–Israeli conflict, Iranian revolution, and Islamic revival

By the early years of the 20th century, most of the Muslim world outside the Ottoman empire had been absorbed into the empires of non-Islamic European powers. After World War I losses, nearly all of the Ottoman empire was also parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. In the course of the 20th century, most of these European-ruled territories became independent, and new issues such as oil wealth and relations with the State of Israel have assumed prominence.^[132] The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.^[133]

The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.

The 20th century saw the Islamic world increasingly exposed to outside cultural influences, bringing potential changes to Muslim societies. In response, new Islamic "revivalist" movements were initiated as a counter movement to non-Islamic ideas. Groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate a totalistic and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. Sometimes called Islamist, they see Western cultural values as a threat, and promote Islam as a comprehensive solution to every public and private question of importance. Some Muslim organizations began using the media to promote the message of Islam. The first Islamic satellite network hosting a 24-hour service worldwide was MTA International, established by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in 1994. Zakir Naik, head of the Islamic Research Foundation, established another 24-hour Islamic international TV channel (Peace TV) in 2006.^[134]

In the 21st century Muslims face questions relating to their faith, the nation state, science, and every day life. New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions to resolve these issues.^[135] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".^[136] Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity. Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise.^[137] In the Islamic debate on evolution, some scientists have expressed concern over Muslims' importation of creationist theories. Nevertheless, because Muslims view Islam as compatible with science, and the high prestige accorded to scientists in the Islamic world, research scientists can spread scientific ideas to Muslims.^[138] In his book titled God Is Not Great, which criticizes all religions, Christopher Hitchens expresses his opinion by stating that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,^[139] Syed Ameer Ali,^[140] Ahmed Deedat^[141] and Yusuf Estes.^[142] Montgomery Watt and Norman Daniel dismiss many of the criticisms as the product of old myths and polemics.^[143]

As a result of immigration, many Muslims have formed significant communities in the United States and Europe (particularly Britain, France and Germany). A concern for Muslims has been the practice of their faith, and retention of their values and identity.^[144] The rise of Islamophobia, according to Carl Ernst, had contributed to the negative views about Islam and Muslims in the West.^[145] Paul Berman considers this to be "reactionary turn in the intellectual world" represented by Western scholars who idealize Islam.^[146] Tariq Ramadan argues for the creation of a "European Islamic culture" that takes into account the customs and reality of life in Europe, while respecting Islamic values and guidelines.^[147]

Denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches

Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim population are found

Movements in Islam

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam

Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising the vast bulk (80-90%^[7]^[9]^[148]) of the world's 1.5 billion Muslims, hence the title Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (people of the tradition^[15] and union). In Arabic language, as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine. According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.^[149] Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.^[148]^[150]

There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.^[151] The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.^[152]

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam

The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.^[9]^[12] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who according to some Shi'a are in a state of ismah, meaning infallibility. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, as the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was his rightful successor, and they call him the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shi'a, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.^[153]

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya). Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.^[154] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.^[155] Other branches include the Alawites and Alevi.

Sufism

Main article: Sufism

Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.^[156] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation.^{[citation needed]} Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.^[157]^[158]

Minor denominations

Ahmadiyya is an Messianic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world.^[159] However, Ahmadis are considered to be non-Muslims by many Muslim communities around the world, and many notable Islamic scholars have issued fatwas ^[160](religious ruling) on Ahmadiyya communities, declaring them to be non-Muslim, mainly because Ahmadis deny the finality of Muhammad as Prophet.^[161] Pakistan, Saudia Arabia, Bangladesh, Indonesia and numerous other Muslim countries declared Ahmadiyya to be non-Muslims.^[162] Pakistan, through a constitutional amendment in 1974, passed a law declaring Ahmadiyya a separate religion and non-Muslim.^[163] Ahmadis are not allowed to sit on the All India Muslim Personal Law Board, a body of religious leaders that India's government recognises as representative of Indian Muslims.^[164]
The Berghouata were a late first millennium Berber sect who followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism)^[165] with elements of Sunni, Shi'a and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions.
The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman, with a number of diasporic communities in Northern Africa.^[166]^[167]
The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith and/or the Sunnah.
Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah

Muslim population by percentage worldwide

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims. Of those, an estimated 80–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shi'a,^[7]^[8]^[9] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,^[168] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.^[169] Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million;^[170] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion.

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.^[171] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.^[172]^[173] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.^[174]

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).^[175]^[176]^[177]^[178] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.^[179] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,^[180] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.^[12]^[181]

Culture

The Blue Mosque in Afghanistan

Main article: Islamic culture

Architecture

Main article: Islamic architecture

Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).^[182] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,^[183] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

Art

Main article: Islamic art

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.^[184] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle.

Calendar

Main article: Islamic calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.^[185] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1^st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10^th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.